UDA Digest > 2022
sea mills Blue Economy Maritime Security

UNCLOS, EEZ and MSR: Challenges for India

  • March 1, 2022
  • 0 Comments

UNCLOS, EEZ and MSR: Challenges for India​ The discussions on Blue Economy and Maritime Security challenges in India rightly point out that the situational awareness has become an increasingly prominent component of the Blue Economy where the state wants to have comprehensive knowledge of the situation at, or related to the seas. Specific mentions of the importance of the Exclusive economic zone, continental shelf and the two exploration contracts with the International Seabed Authority in the area beyond national jurisdiction have been made time and again. The focus of this article is thus limited to contemporary challenges, specific to these areas and in the context of resources. The essential focus of Marine Domain Awareness and Underwater Domain Awareness is on matters of security. Security includes use of advance scientific knowledge as well as deployment of highly sophisticated technical devices and instruments. Legally, however such use and deployment has to be in conformity with the existing legal framework with respect to maritime jurisdictional rights. Such legal frame work is contained in the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and related instruments. Exclusive economic zone: The exclusive economic zone extends up to 200 nautical miles from the baselines. In the water column as well as in the seabed and subsoil, beyond the territorial waters, the coastal State enjoys sovereign rights over all its resources. In the context of Under Water Domain Awareness, the challenge here is concerning the rights of other States to engage in Marine Scientific Research. Marine scientific research is essential to understand not only the physical characteristics of the water column as well as the seabed and subsoil, but also the nature of the deep-sea resources. While the freedom of marine scientific research is a recognized freedom of the High Seas, UNCLOS also contains general principles for the conduct of marine scientific research in the various maritime zones of coastal States. In the exclusive economic zone and continental shelf, coastal States enjoy sovereign rights over the resources. Coastal States have the right to regulate authorize and conduct marine scientific research. Consent of the coastal State is required for the conduct of marine scientific research in the exclusive economic zone or the continental shelf. Under normal circumstances, coastal State shall grant its consent for marine scientific research. UNCLOS clarifies that normal circumstances may exist in spite of the absence of diplomatic relations between the coastal State and the researching State. UNCLOS specifies where the Coastal State may withhold its consent, Continental Shelf: The continental shelf of a coastal State, or an island, is the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge of the continental margin. In the continental shelf, the coastal State enjoys sovereign rights over the natural resources. The rights of the coastal States in the continental shelf are exclusive. If the coastal State does not explore the continental shelf or exploit its natural resources, no one else may undertake these activities without the express consent of the coastal State. Where the continental margin of a State is up to or less than 200 nm, it coincides with the exclusive economic zone. Where the continental margin extends beyond 200 nautical miles, the Convention prescribes certain criteria for the establishment of the outer limits and requires submission of data and information to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS/Commission) for consideration. The deliberations of the Commission and sub-commissions are held in private and remain confidential. No documentations or records of the interactions between the sub-commission and the delegations of the coastal States are kept by the secretariat. It is therefore advantageous to have the presence of a coastal State’s elected member in the Commission. The next election of the Commission is expected to be held in June 2022. Contracts with the International Seabed Authority (ISA): India has two contracts with ISA. The first one is a contract for exploration of polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean entered into in 2002. This contract carries with it certain historical background as a former Registered Pioneer Investor that has much legal significance. The contract was initially for a period of 15 years and was further extended to by 5 years in 2017 on the expectation that India will proceed to the exploitation contract stage. However, the Regulations for Exploitation is yet to be adopted the Authority. The rights over the seabed resources are purely contractual rights. There is no sovereignty or sovereign rights involved. There is no ownership over the resources. The contractual rights for exploration exist purely for the duration of the contract. The current exploration contract is valid until 24 March 2022. It is important that India, like six other contractors also applies for further extension of its exploration contract at the earliest. India’s second contract is for exploration of polymetallic sulphides in the Indian Ocean Ridge in the Central Indian Ocean. This contract was entered into in September 2016 and is valid until 2031. UNCLOS confers compulsory jurisdiction in respect of any disputes concerning contracts to the Seabed Disputes Chamber of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. Importantly, such compulsory dispute settlement procedures can be invoked by natural and juridical persons viz. individual contractors or multinational consortia. Action Points: There is a need for a comprehensive legislation concerning sovereign rights in the Exclusive Economic Zone and Continental Shelf as well as for the conduct of marine scientific research compatible with UNCLOS. This becomes particularly important in the context of multitude of laws, regulations and guidelines adopted by several organizations such as UNESCO, UNEP, FAO, ISA, Convention on Biodiversity, Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage etc, apart from numerous resolutions adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. “There is a need for a comprehensive legislation concerning sovereign rights in the Exclusive Economic Zone and Continental Shelf as well as for the conduct of marine scientific research compatible with

Read More
wave Blue Economy

Blue Economy – Ocean Energy

  • March 1, 2022
  • 0 Comments

Blue Economy – Ocean Energy​ Capt. Vikrant Nagarkar highlights the importance of renewable wave & tidal energy, especially for a developing country like India. Concerns about carbon dioxide emissions and global warming, and the security and long-term availability of fossil fuel supplies has led to greatly renewed interest in all forms of renewable energy. The time may have come to consider ocean renewable energy as well. To start with, one must understand that ocean energy refers to all forms of renewable energy derived from the sea. There are two main types of ocean technology: Thermal Energy, derived from the Sun, and Mechanical Energy, generated by wave & tide. All forms of energy from the ocean are still at an early stage of commercialisation. While ocean power is not yet widely deployed globally, it is a growing market with research underway in several countries, including Australia, Canada, USA, the UK and India. “While ocean power is not yet widely deployed globally, it is a growing market with research underway in several countries, including Australia, Canada, USA, the UK and India.” Energy is inherent in the movement of ocean waves, in the difference in temperature between warm surface waters and cooler deep waters, in the disparity in salinity between fresh water and salt, and in marine currents and tides. The International Energy Agency estimates that wave power could potentially produce 8,000 to 80,000 TWh yearly; ocean thermal energy could produce 10,000 TWh; osmotic power (from salinity differences) could produce 2,000 TWh; and tides and marine currents could produce 1,100 TWh. Ocean thermal energy, osmotic energy, marine currents and some types of wave energy could produce base load power, electricity that is consistent and reliable. “Ocean thermal energy, osmotic energy, marine currents and some types of wave energy could produce base load power, electricity that is consistent and reliable.” The areas with the most wave energy potential are the Pacific Northwest and Alaska in the United States, and the U.K. and Scotland. The Indian government has identified potential locations for wave power development along the west coast of India in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Kanyakumari, located at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, has the highest power owing to the effects of refraction and strong winds. A 1 MW wave-to-energy plant, the country’s first floating device, is to be implemented by the Agency for New and Renewable Energy Research and Technology (ANERT) to tap the power of waves off the Vizhinjam coast. The project at Vizhinjam is a pilot project initiated by the IIT Chennai undertaking of the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT). “A 1 MW wave-to-energy plant, the country’s first floating device, is to be implemented by the Agency for New and Renewable Energy Research and Technology (ANERT) to tap the power of waves off the Vizhinjam coast.” It is interesting to note that the tidally driven waves running along the coasts of China, Korea and parts of Europe hold the most promise for dynamic tidal power while tropical oceans along the equator are the best places to exploit ocean thermal energy. Wave energy is generated when converters capture the energy contained in ocean waves and use it to generate electricity. Converters include oscillating water columns that trap air pockets to drive a turbine; oscillating body converters that use wave motion; and overtopping converters that make use of height differences. The following figures depict different types of converters: Tidal Energy is a renewable energy source, resulting from gravitational fields of both the sun and the moon, combining with Earth’s rotation around its axis, to cause, high and low tides. The difference in potential energy between high & low tide is the source of power generation from tidal energy; produced either by tidal-range technologies using a barrage (a dam or other barrier) to harvest power between high and low tide; tidal-current or tidal-stream technologies; or hybrid applications. The following figure depicts a tidal current turbine. Figure-2 A tall turbine (much like a wind turbine) anchored to a base, is placed on the sea floor. The tidal currents move the rotors, generating electricity. When the tide goes out, the rotors reverse direction and continue to generate electricity, which is sent to the grid on shore via a cable. The potential sites for tidal energy projects in India are the Gulf of Kutch (estimated potential of 1200 MW), Gulf of Cambay (7000 MW) and the Durgaduani Creek in the Sundarbans Delta (100 MW). “A developing Country like India needs to work aggressively at generating this type of energy to achieve its climate change goals.” A developing Country like India needs to work aggressively at generating this type of energy to achieve its climate change goals. The renewable green energy is predictable, effective at low-speed and has a long life span. At the same time, one must not forget the cost effectiveness. At present the process has not been developed fully and the cost is high; since converters need to be installed near sea areas, installation and maintenance cost will be high. India needs to follow the example of South Korea, which is the world’s leading tidal energy generating country, followed by the UK & other countries in Europe. One of the most important factors for any country is its own security. If India can install dummy turbines in and around India’s coast, it can gather intelligence input about the underwater activity of neighbouring nations. This will ensure that the nation’s security is not compromised. Capt. Vikrant Nagarkar​ About Author Capt. Vikrant Nagarkar completed his B.Sc (Phy) from Pune University and in 1992 achieved Certificate Proficiency (Govt of India) for the post of Radio Officer on ships. Subsequently, he started his career in Merchant Navy as a Radio Officer. After completing the required sea time, he successfully finished several examinations for different categories of the Certificate of Competency from Fleetwood Nautical College, Blackpool, UK. In 2009, he accomplished the position of Captain and sailed until 2019 when he took voluntary retirement from

Read More
CGI3 Maritime Security

China’s ‘Undersea Great Wall’ Project: Implications Dissecting the Threat and the Possibilities

  • March 1, 2022
  • 0 Comments

China’s ‘Undersea Great Wall’ Project: Implications Dissecting the Threat and the Possibilities​ Background The ‘Undersea Great Wall (UGW)’ project is an ambitious program announced by the China State Shipbuilding Corporation (CSSC) in Dec 2015. It is part of the focused underwater capacity building initiative by the Chinese government since 1980 that has been openly announced only recently. The CSSC announced that it would construct an underwater observation system in the disputed South China Sea region. The UGW is part of the major project to set up an offshore observation network by 2020, released by the State Oceanic Administration. The stated larger vision of the Chinese government is to be seen as a global maritime power with a network covering coastal waters, the high seas, and polar waters. The aim is to build a network of surface and sub-surface sensors for real-time monitoring of maritime targets. The proposed project comprises of multiple underwater sensors mounted on surface ships, sonar systems, underwater security equipment, marine oil and gas exploration equipment, unmanned underwater vehicles and marine electronic equipment. The UGW is expected to present a comprehensive Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA) for surveillance, environment monitoring, disaster management and undersea exploration/exploitation. Stated Claim The stated claim is that the UGW project is considered as an advanced form of the Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) which was used by the US during the Cold War period to detect Soviet Union submarines. The lack of advanced maritime surveillance system is considered a serious challenge in securing its growing maritime interest. Chinese experts believe that “China’s current maritime security is complex, where most of Beijing’s undersea domain doors have been left open.” The project is seen as a Chinese response to the growing tension in the South China Sea with the United States and its neighbors. The Japan’s activation of the coastal surveillance unit on Yonagunt Island is also considered to be a trigger. This a reflection of increasing assertion by China in the South China Sea and around. “The technology gaps between China and other developed global maritime powers like the US, Japan, Canada and Europe is considered to be enormous and projects like these are likely to bridge these gaps.” The Chinese have attempted underwater networks in the past with an underwater optical detection network in 2010 near China’s North Sea Fleet, headquartered in Qingdao. The second system was installed near Hainan Island in 2011, and part of the system was tested in 2013 near Sanya nuclear submarine base. In 2012, the State Council announced the construction of the seabed observation system in Lingshui, Hainan. These projects remained ambitious in their design, however, failed to deliver the desired results once implemented. The technology gaps between China and other developed global maritime powers like the US, Japan, Canada and Europe is considered to be enormous and projects like these are likely to bridge these gaps. Figure-1 Figure: SOSUS and UGW Challenges The underwater sensor networks primarily need the acoustic capability to sense the undersea events or developments. There are three distinct layers of this acoustic capability – the acoustic sensor, the analysis algorithms and the information sharing mechanism. We also call it to see, to understand and to share. The sensor hardware is highly specialized and globally only could be sourced from few entities in the US and Europe. In the post-Cold War period, it is available though at a significant cost. The share category has also matured regarding its technology and management available from other above water networks. It is only the analysis that requires significant indigenous effort and import is not possible. This includes data pre-processing to improve the data quality and then application specific information extraction. “The ongoing strategy to replicate the Cold War development of underwater technology in the tropical littoral settings is a far cry.” The pre-processing to improve data quality requires significant understanding of the underwater channel behavior and mitigation. The South China Sea, like the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), being in the tropical littoral region requires special efforts and cannot be compared to the SOSUS system deployed in the temperate or near polar seas. Sonar suffers near five times degradation in range when deployed in the tropical waters compared to the SOSUS location. The underwater medium acoustically behaves like shallow waters in the tropical region, up to 2000 m depth based on the sound axis location. The ongoing strategy to replicate the Cold War development of underwater technology in the tropical littoral settings is a far cry. They have repeatedly failed in the absence of massive infrastructure investment to understand the medium characteristics. Such investments are possible only with pooling of resources across maritime stakeholders. The Cold War trend of massive military investments gave rise to significant technology developments, however even in the US today, massive military funding is no more politically and economically viable. The massive military infrastructure, particularly in the underwater domain, was opened up for the so-called civilian research to support the sustainability of the projects post the Cold War. The SOSUS was also opened up for marine mammal and acoustic research post the Cold War period. Conclusions The UGW project is a significant initiative to build underwater capability for any maritime power that aspires to compete with the global powers. Even if it does not achieve the stated objectives, it is still worthwhile to invest and develop the capability. A comprehensive UDA concept in the tropical littoral waters is a first of its kind effort and may have only deterrence value for its adversaries rather than any credible response to the growing tension in the South China Sea. Optimum sonar performance will continue to remain a challenge in the tropical littoral waters. The initiative in its construct does reflect the participation of all the four stakeholders of UDA namely, the national security, marine environment and disaster management, Blue economy and the underwater technology development. The earlier efforts by only the military have failed as the resource requirement for any underwater network initiative in the tropical littoral

Read More
beach Blue Economy Maritime Security

Maritime Domain Awareness – A Call for Capacity Building

  • March 1, 2022
  • 0 Comments

Maritime Domain Awareness – A Call for Capacity Building​ The Webinar on ‘Maritime Security and Atmanirbha Bharat: A New Perspective based on the Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA) Framework’ organized by the Maritime Research Centre brought forth perspectives from a wide band of experts from the maritime sector. Malini V Shankar of the Indian Maritime University shares her views. Underwater Domain Awareness is a specialized and nascent aspect of Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA), and nestled in the larger context of policies pertaining to the Blue Economy. There can be a dichotomous approach to UDA or MDA: (a) pertaining to conflict situations wherein maritime security and underwater security will be the mainstay, and (b) pertaining to development initiatives that feed upon the rich underwater resources. My focus in this article is on the development framework, with particular reference to the importance of capacity building. The Blue Economy covers a very wide spectrum of activities that can exploit the rich natural resources of the seabed. The concept seeks to promote economic growth, social inclusion, and the preservation or improvement of livelihoods while at the same time ensuring environmental sustainability of the oceans and coastal areas. In alignment with this concept, and not limited to it, the Government of India has taken measures to promote the Blue Economy through initiatives such as Sagarmala Project, SAGAR (Security And Growth for All in the Region, 2015), as well as strengthening of collaborations with IORA and BIMSTEC nations. The success of any initiative or scheme is a function of the sensitization, awareness, commitment and capability of those who helm and steer the initiative. Three strands deserve attention: 1. Marine Ecology and Pollution​ MARPOL is a well-established Convention of the IMO, and one that has attained a good degree of compliance internationally. In the Indian context, there is room for developing capabilities in global negotiation, especially in cases of pollution arising out of oil spills and similar incidents. Following the ship collision on the East Coast (near the Kamaraj Port), assiduous negotiations between stakeholders (local, national and international) resulted in appreciable compensation within the ambit of the Convention on Limited Liability. Negotiation skills need to be further strengthened in the interest of the country. “Negotiation skills need to be further strengthened in the interest of the country.” 2. The position of influence at IMO, ILO​ Strategic measures are needed to generate partnerships and collaborations and thereby create a sphere of influence in multilateral organizations. In my experience, there are countries – those with a small population, or those that are economically less developed – that are prepared to support India on policies of common interest. Identifying potential partners, influencing marginal supporters, generating interest in the proposals of India, communicating clearly and precisely, and elaborating when necessary, requires sustained effort at global platforms and at the national level (consistent cooperation between departments and ministries). Sans this, submissions sail through with minimal comprehension of the future consequences for the nation. An instance that I dare think of is the issue of Convention of Ballast Water and its implications on costs for Indian shipping. Other examples include the issue of floating armories in the Indian Ocean, or the implications of excessive documentation combined with reduced manning on the health and well-being of Indian seafarers. “Identifying potential partners, influencing marginal supporters, generating interest in the proposals of India, communicating clearly and precisely, and elaborating when necessary, requires sustained effort at global platforms and at the national level.” 3. The Importance of Coastal Security​ Incidents and collisions between merchant navy and fishing boats along the coast occur with regular frequency, more so along the west coast of India, which witnesses one of the most intense ship traffic in the region. The most striking incident is one that involved the Italian Marines and the local police. Efforts have been initiated by the Director General Shipping in terms of traffic separation, delineating routes for fishing boats and the merchant navy. Expectedly, there has been stiff resistance from coastal fishermen. Creating awareness among the local populace and sustained communication will help mitigate the tension. Simultaneously, it is essential to focus on institutional capacity building of the marine police. The personnel occupying the marine police stations have minimal to nil understanding of the laws of the sea, trained as they are on laws pertaining to land. The lack of mastery of ocean laws renders them susceptible to external influence and vested interests, and this in turn endangers marine security. Conclusion​ Capacity building is the cornerstone from the frame of reference of the academic world, and the Indian Maritime University (IMU) would be happy to engage in national capacity building partnerships. The IMU, which specializes in maritime studies, is keen to enlarge its training and research activities to include inter alia subjects such as marine ecology and maritime law. The Potential of the Blue Economy – Increasing Long-term Benefits of the Sustainable Use of Marine Resources for Small Island Developing States and Coastal Least Developed Countries, World Bank, 2017 Dr. Malini V Shankar About Author VC, Indian Maritime University.

Read More
skills_for_enterprises_sme Science and Technology Skilling India

A Case for Skill Development

  • February 28, 2022
  • 0 Comments

Rajendra Jog highlights the need to build appropriate skills across various domains in order to leverage India’s demographic bonus.​ The problem of unemployment is very serious in our country. Despite the vast ocean of unemployed people, it is a challenge to find the right type of personnel for various jobs. While there is a surplus of manpower, there is also a vast shortage of people with the skills to fill the large number of jobs available. What is required is development of skills that meet the rapidly changing industry needs. “Skill development is critical for achieving faster, sustainable, and inclusive growth on one hand and to provide decent employment opportunities for the growing young population on the other.”​ Skill development is critical for achieving faster, sustainable, and inclusive growth on one hand and to provide decent employment opportunities for the growing young population on the other. Overall skill development can be more effectively achieved by encouraging user-academia- industry partnership to enhance the opportunities for Young India to contribute towards nation building. India is now experiencing a period of ‘demographic bonus’, where the growth rate of the working age population will exceed that of the total population. By the year 2026, around 64% of India’s population is expected to be in the age bracket of 15–59 years, while only 13% of the total will be above 60 years. A young population is an asset only if it is educated, skilled and finds productive employment. If this happens then our dream of realizing India’s potential to grow the economy at 10% or more per annum for a substantial period can become a reality. The demographic window of opportunity available to India can make the country the skill capital of the world. This can only happen if the nation is able to meet the requirement for technically trained manpower not only for its growing economy but also aging advanced economies of the world. “The country presently faces a dual challenge of severe paucity of highly trained, quality labour, as well as non-employability of large sections of the educated workforce that possess little or no job skills.”​ Availability of basic infrastructure is one of the important requirements for the proper implementation of skill & training development programs. The Indo Swiss Centre of Excellence (ISCE) was set up jointly by Malhotra Weikfield Foundation, Syngenta Foundation, Sulzer and Burckhardt. The objective not for profit company was to establish a CEA (Centre of Excellence in Agriculture) and CEM (Centre of Excellence in Manufacturing). This initiative is expected to address five missions of our Honourable Prime Minister: Skilling India, Make in India, Employability of Rural Youth, Improving Agricultural Productivity, Innovation & Sustainable Technologies, thereby achieving the goal of becoming ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’. ISCE has already built a Centre of Excellence in Agriculture, operated by Syngenta Foundation, where unemployed rural youth are trained in the basics of agronomy in addition to soft skills, IT skills, and basic finance and business skills. Candidates completing this course are either absorbed by agri and allied industries or are encouraged to become agri entrepreneurs to support approximately 200 farmers in their own villages, thereby helping smallholder farmers to improve their livelihood as well. During the last two years, approximately 1600 village youths have been trained, of which 910 students were absorbed by agri allied companies, while around 700 students have become agri entrepreneurs. Construction will soon start on the Centre of Excellence in Manufacturing (CEM), a state-of-the-art technical training centre offering Diploma courses in Mechatronics and Electronics, and short term courses to impart futuristic skills like IoT, Machine Learning, 3D Printing, and other skills needed to meet changing industry needs. The CEM will collaborate with NTTF, a renowned institution that offers similar training facilities across various Indian states and has a 100% placement record for their students. In the near future, the ISCE could also consider establishing a multi-disciplinary Centre of Excellence on Maritime Studies, comprising of centres for research, training, innovation, and strategy. Acoustic survey is a critical skill that will be required on a massive scale across multiple industries in the maritime sector and in the freshwater systems in the hinterland. Appropriate skill development at multiple levels will be required to drive the substantial human resource development requirement. “The Prime Minister’s Skill India initiative needs to have a maritime focus with a comprehensive policy support to bridge the demand versus supply gap.”​ The Prime Minister’s Skill India initiative needs to have a maritime focus with a comprehensive policy support to bridge the demand versus supply gap. The UDA framework can provide multiple opportunities in that direction and could become an enabler for his SAGAR vision. Institutionalization of the User-Academia-Industry partnership towards realizing the substantial potential of the maritime sector for peace and prosperity in the Indian Ocean Region is the way forward. Rajendra Jog About Author CEO, Indian Swiss Center of Excellence, Pune

Read More
regional Underwater Heritage

A Regional Overview of India’s Maritime Heritage

  • February 17, 2022
  • 0 Comments

Key Highlights India’s maritime heritage is not restricted to the seas but has been equally impacted by our river systems This article attempts to provide a brief introduction to the maritime heritage and capabilities of India, from its northwestern coast to the eastern coast The Northwest coast has had a long connection with maritime commerce, with several important ports developing there The fort of Vijaydurg was one of the primary fortresses on the Konkan coast while Shivaji developed the Maratha navy. The Coromandel coast was at the centre of the Chola naval dominance in the 11th century Bengal has had a long maritime tradition and has a variety of boat types, from riverine to sea-going In the first of a series of essays, Prithwiraj Gupta provides an introduction to the country’s often ignored maritime heritage. India’s maritime heritage stretches back more than three millennia but is only now being given serious consideration . With the growing prominence of the Indian Ocean region over the last decade or so, knowledge of India’s maritime contribution to the history of the Indian Ocean Region, and consequently to global history, has grown significantly and is being assessed from several different perspectives. The very fact that such a development has only occurred now is testament to the land centric view of our history from at least the colonial period, which has shaped much of the way in which we perceive our own history. India’s maritime heritage is not restricted to the seas but has been equally impacted by our river systems. “India’s maritime heritage is not restricted to the seas but has been equally impacted by our river systems.” Figure-1 Situated at the head of the Indian Ocean, India has always enjoyed a prominent position in the Indian Ocean. Since time immemorial, all maritime traffic, whether from west to east or vice versa, has used Indian ports. Given the nation’s long association with water bodies, it has been witness to significant developments in maritime capability throughout history. They have been products of the specific environments in which they developed – inland, coastal, or oceanic – and hence vary according to regions and their different environments. This essay attempts to provide a brief introduction to the maritime heritage and capabilities of India, from its northwestern coast to the eastern coast, and finally bring into focus the capabilities developed along our riverine systems. It will intentionally not proceed chronologically in order to highlight the roles that each individual region played in the development of historical maritime capabilities. This essay is the first in a series focusing on the capabilities that evolved in each region throughout history. The Northwestern Coast Figure-2 The Northwest coast has had a long connect with maritime commerce, with several important ports developing there. The port of Bharuch, for example, was a hub of maritime commerce since ancient times and was known by different names such as Barygaza and Broach at different points in its history. Let’s begin at the northwest coast, which as Lakshmi Subramanian (Maritime Historian & Author of The Sovereign and The Pirate) mentions, was known as the northward in early colonial records (Lakshmi Subramanian, The Sovereign and The Pirate. Oxford University Press, 2016, pp. 2.). This area, from Sindh to Kathiawar, has always been an exceptionally important part of India’s maritime networks. The dockyard at Lothal, which is in this region, is a measure of the major role the northwestern coast of the subcontinent played in connecting India to other regions, by way of the sea, for at least three millennia. This coast saw extensive traffic from western Asia till the monsoon winds came to be widely utilized for sailing across the open seas. This part of India’s coast also saw the development of major ports like Bharuch, Khambhat (Cambay) and Surat, which were mercantile hubs for centuries. An interesting anecdote about the northwestern coast of India is that this was the place the Mughal emperor Akbar saw the ocean for the first time, at Khambhat during his conquest of Gujarat. Pirates were active in the northward from around the 12th century onwards and provide to be a constant menace till the 18th century. The Konkan Figure-3 The fort of Vijaydurg was one of the primary fortresses on the Konkan coast while Shivaji developed the Maratha navy. During Kanhoji Angria’s time, the Maratha fleet was extremely effective in the coastal waters of the Konkan and not even the European fleets could wrest control of the region from the Marathas. Moving further down to the Konkan coast, we have evidence that the Satavahana rulers had some maritime association. This can be discerned from Satavahana coins, which have ships engraved on them; however, no written record has confirmed what the Satavahana maritime capabilities were like. The Konkan coast became more prominent in the 18th century, when the Maratha fleet under the Angrias engaged with the British and Portuguese navies in the Arabian Sea in its quest to dominate the Konkan coastline. The Maratha navy stuck primarily to coastal engagements, utilizing their knowledge of the same as well as an elaborate network of forts for defence and supplies. While the Maratha dominance was short-lived, it proved that indigenous forces could challenge the Europeans with the right strategic awareness and overall capability development. With the consolidation of colonial rule, the Konkan saw the development of the city of Bombay, which became one of the centres of the British Raj and continues to be central to India to this day. The Malabar and the Coromandel The Malabar coast was where Europeans landed for the first time after finding the alternative way to India by sailing around southern Africa. Vasco da Gama’s arrival at Calicut, then ruled by the Samoothiri, in 1498 changed the dynamics of the Indian Ocean Region completely. However, European dominance was not achieved without any resistance from indigenous powers. The Samoothiri’s (Zamorin’s) naval forces, under the Kunjali Marakkars, attempted to stop Portuguese hegemony on the waters around the Malabar but, superior

Read More
auv 1 Science and Technology Skilling India

Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Design & Development for Effective Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA) Framework in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR)

  • February 17, 2022
  • 0 Comments

Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Design & Development for Effective Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA) Framework in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR)​​ The Indian Ocean Region (IOR) is gaining substantial strategic relevance in the 21st century and increasing number of nations from within and also extra-regional powers are maintaining their strategic presence in the region. The rich undersea resources in the region is attracting varied global powers to deploy their strategic assets to lay claim to such resources. The maritime forces are also aggressively maintaining their strategic presence to safeguard their national interests. The sudden and unregulated rise in the maritime activities may cause serious damage to the marine ecosystem and also there is a fit case to ensure reliable systems for early warning of natural disasters. Science and technology will always remain the driver for sustainable development and thus efforts are required to understand the underwater domain to facilitate safe, secure, sustainable growth for all in the region. “Science and technology will always remain the driver for sustainable development and thus efforts are required to understand the underwater domain to facilitate safe, secure, sustainable growth for all in the region.”​ The Indian Ocean Region (IOR), presents unique challenges in the maritime domain pertaining to political, economic and technological considerations. The volatile political realities ensure lack of synergy among the nations, allowing extra-regional powers to meddle with the internal matters. The pre-modern states in the region with weak governance structures, allow the non-state actors to actively operate and disrupt peace and harmony. The socio-economic status of most of the nations in the region limits the size of the projects to allow use of state-of-the-art technology. Prioritizing environment and sustainable growth is a challenge due to the socio-economic priorities and political considerations. Science and technology has remained at the back burner as political and economic prioritising remained low. Sea blindness has been a major limitation among the policy makers and people at large, to be able to harness the massive opportunities that await us in the IOR. The tropical littoral waters further add to our technological challenges, due to sub-optimal performance of the sonars deployed for any underwater survey across stakeholders. “The UDA framework depends on underwater survey capabilities and capacity.”​ The UDA framework depends on underwater survey capabilities and capacity. Acoustic survey is typically the de-facto tool given the advantage acoustic sensing has over all other techniques underwater. Optical, electro-magnetic and all other methods are extremely limited in the underwater domain due to high attenuation. The underwater survey primarily requires two components, the sensor and the platform which will ensure that the sensor reaches every nook and corner of the entire underwater domain. Autonomous and unmanned vehicles have proved their effectiveness for such applications. There is a need to explore the Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) as a platform for underwater survey in the IOR, given its unique challenges and opportunities. An AUV, is a self-propelled, unmanned, untethered underwater vehicle capable of being utilized as a survey platforms to map the seafloor or characterize physical, chemical, or biological properties of the water. The first AUV was developed by the Applied Physics Laboratory at the University of Washington as early as 1957. The “Special Purpose Underwater Research Vehicle”, or SPURV, was used to study diffusion, acoustic transmission and submarine wakes. Acoustic signals from the accompanying research vessel guided SPURV in moving below the surface of the water. SPURV then generated models of underwater physical properties such as ocean currents and temperature. AUVs are attractive options for effective UDA in the IOR: They can reach shallower water than boats can and deeper water than human divers or many tethered vehicles can. Once deployed and underwater, AUVs are safe from bad weather and can stay underwater for extended periods of time. They are also scalable, or modular, meaning that scientists can choose which sensors to attach to them depending on their research objectives. AUVs are also less expensive than research vessels, but they can complete identical repeat surveys of an area. The design challenges in an AUV for ensuring optimum specifications in terms of operations, range, endurance and sensor use could be as follows: Optimization of power and cost. Total payload calculation. Testing of AUV. Collision avoidance. Monitoring the position of AUV. Procedure in case of failure (overheating, water seepage, etc.). The IOR has specific urgent requirements for deploying AUVs for effective realization of the UDA framework. There is certainly an urgent requirement to build core capability in AUV design and development. These are application specific as listed below: Underwater Search and Rescue. Oceanographic data gathering. Ambient noise monitoring for effective sensor deployment. Underwater channel modelling. Underwater surveillance for military purpose. Marine environment monitoring. “The lack of such specialized UDA capabilities are proving to be expensive in terms of inefficient and ineffective deployment of underwater resources for varied missions including underwater exploration and exploitations.”​ The national science and technology focus needs to urgently initiate programs for AUV design and development. The lack of such specialized UDA capabilities are proving to be expensive in terms of inefficient and ineffective deployment of underwater resources for varied missions including underwater exploration and exploitations. The stakeholders need to come together and invest to build this capability. The involvement of young India in this direction is extremely critical and for that massive awareness campaigns are required right from policy makers, stakeholders, practitioners and the academia. There is a fit case to launch an AUV competition at the student level to encourage participation by the young generation and also build capability and capacity through crowd sourcing of ideas for national requirement. India needs to develop these core capabilities for effective UDA framework not just for its own requirement, but also as a diplomatic tool to engage with the nations in the IOR. Science & technology will always be a driver for safe, secure, sustainable growth for all in the region and this will allow effective realization of the SAGAR vision by the Honourable Prime Minister. The aggressive Chinese influence among the

Read More
Sediment Science and Technology

Sediment Prediction and Aid to Navigation for the Inland Water Transport in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR)

  • February 17, 2022
  • 0 Comments

Sediment Prediction and Aid to Navigation for the Inland Water Transport in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR)​ The National Waterway No. 2 (NW2), is being pursued very aggressively by the Government of India, as an infrastructure project for the development of the North-East, particularly for the State of Assam. It is an extremely ambitious project with plans for multi-modal transport systems and multiple other diplomatic agendas of taking our neighbouring nations on-board the development agenda for the region. Such mega projects raise the stakes for all the stakeholders and demand high-end measures to ensure reliable operational availability at all times. The NW1 and NW2 are also being connected as part of the trans-boundary Inland Water Transport (IWT) between India and Bangladesh. The figure below provides the details of the Bharat-Bangladesh Protocol Route being planned. Such IWT network will provide an efficient system for multi-modal connectivity in the entire region comprising of India and its neighbours. Figure-1 Bharat-Bangladesh Protocol Route “The NW2, over the Brahmaputra River has some very unique challenges in terms of being the river that carries the world’s highest sediment load.” The NW2, over the Brahmaputra River has some very unique challenges in terms of being the river that carries the world’s highest sediment load. Both physical and chemical erosion rates are high in the Brahmaputra Basin compared with the world average. The Namche Barwa or Eastern Syntaxis Zone is the major source of sediments and supplies about 45% of the bulk sediment flux from only 20% of mountain area. The sediment deposited in the Brahmaputra varies across its length. At Tsela Dzong in Tibet, it is about 150 tonnes per square km, but as the river crosses the Himalayas and reaches Pasighat at the foothills of Arunachal Pradesh in India, the deposit increases tenfold to 1,495 tonnes per square km. This shows that the river gathers sediments from soft rocks and landslide-affected areas of the Himalayas. “Sediments carried like this, substantially affect the environmental, economic and social aspects of the region. The Inland Water Transport (IWT), project is highly sensitive to such siltation as the navigability of these waterways are severely impacted by such high levels of sediment loads.” Sediments carried like this, substantially affect the environmental, economic and social aspects of the region. The Inland Water Transport (IWT), project is highly sensitive to such siltation as the navigability of these waterways are severely impacted by such high levels of sediment loads. Thus, effective aid for navigation has to factor this rapid rate of siltation and present way ahead to safe guard the vessels from any damage due to the sediment carry. The mass of sediment being transported is referred to as ‘total load’ comprising of bed load representing the sediment rolling, sliding or jumping along the bed, where the grains remain in contact with the bed for majority of their transport, the suspended load representing the portion that is not in continuous contact with bed due to turbulent fluctuation of the flow keeping the particles in suspension and finally the wash load representing the very fine particles that are not included in the total mass of sediment transported. Figure-2, pictorially represents the sediment distribution across the three types, accounting for the total transport load. Figure-2 Sediment Load Distribution Typically, the sediment rate is directly proportional to the channel geometry, however for a river like the Brahmaputra the channel geometry itself keeps on changing, making it extremely challenging for effective estimation of the sediment load. The Brahmaputra displays a wide range of morphological variations ranging between steep gorges and wide channels with gentle slopes, probably due to its tectonics driven gradient changes. To have a better understanding of water discharge and sediment load, we need to know the channel geometry. The measurements can be made only at specific points. Also, there exists a limitation on the frequency of performing the aforementioned task. Thus, there is a case to estimate the river channel geometry, which can be undertaken using an Artificial Intelligence (AI) based technique involving an Artificial Neural Network (ANN). The ANN requires sediment grain size and water discharge rate as inputs, and it gives outputs as the channel width (B), the channel depth (H) and the channel slope (S). Figure-3, presents the ANN flow used for estimating river channel geometry. Figure-4, presents the details of the river channel geometry required for computation of the sediment load. The estimation of the river channel geometry is a critical component in this entire formulation and using the AI techniques give a significant advantage in terms of real-time computation and also accuracy of the estimation. Figure-3 ANN Flow for Estimation of River Channel Geometry Figure-4 River Channel Geometry “The existing models for estimation of the total sediment load are based on direct and indirect methods.” The existing models for estimation of the total sediment load are based on direct and indirect methods. The indirect methods, determine the total sediment load using transport functions based on Einstein’s bed-load function, in which the total sediment load is obtained through sum of the bed load and the suspended load functions. Whereas, the direct method, they make no distinction between the two modes of transports and directly compute the total load. Engelund and Hansen’s approach that depends on the power concept and similarity principle to obtain the sediment transport function. The estimation of the total sediment load then brings us to the task of aid to navigation for the IWT vessels. The Automatic Identification System (AIS) in the maritime sector has been an extremely critical finding by the Technical Committee of the IMO in the late 90s. Today the AIS data is freely available and multiple researchers have built algorithms for varied applications. The AIS data gives complete static and dynamic inputs on the vessel and its voyage. One critical input required for our application here is the draught of the vessel. Now based on the present draught of the vessel and the sediment load estimation discussed earlier, we have developed a unique

Read More
ai Science and Technology

Artificial Intelligence for Effective Realization of Underwater Domain Awareness Framework

  • February 17, 2022
  • 0 Comments

Artificial Intelligence for Effective Realization of Underwater Domain Awareness Framework   Underwater Domain Awareness and Computational Advancement “Acoustic Capacity Building has a wide array of military and commercial applications concerning with Maritime Security, Blue Economy, Marine Environment, Disaster Management, Underwater Archaeology and many more” The Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA) framework, proposed by the Maritime Research Center (MRC), Pune, essentially focuses on effective realization of the Digital Ocean initiative for enhanced maritime governance. This will facilitate enhanced transparency with improved sonar deployment in terms of range, robustness to medium fluctuations, data integrity etc. This is commonly referred to as Acoustic Capacity Building effort and has a wide array of military and commercial applications concerning with Maritime Security, Blue Economy, Marine Environment, Disaster Management, Underwater Archaeology and many more. Although the framework has been coined in recent years, underwater research works contributing towards enhancing performance of marine systems has been a continuous effort since the Cold War period – which required intensive study of propagation of sound in sea for Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) operations. A fine example of this would be the ‘Ross Model’, developed by Donald Ross (acoustician), who used the noise measured by SOSUS in World War II (WWII) and during the Cold War to develop a mathematical model that predicts the noise emitted by ships using its length and speed. Over the years, technology has helped bridge the gap between theoretical assumptions and practical implementations of the research efforts. Advanced computing power and storage have allowed us to perform better data collection and simulations along with increased number of testing’s, the result of which can be seen in the sharp decline of error rates of mathematical and the thus derived computational models. The D.Ross model that we spoke about in the first para, now has five new variants, all of which supersede their prior models in terms of error rate, with the latest one being Wittikiend Model, which considers additional parameters such as Engine Power, No of Engines, Engine Mass etc., to compute the vessel noise. Moreover, the computational advancements allow us to perform novel analysis and superior demonstration of outputs, which in turn allows stronger data interpretation and implementation.   Artificial Intelligence – Machine Learning and its Impact on the UDA Framework Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a very broad domain in itself and as such there is no single practical definition that covers all the aspects of AI. It is thus defined, depending on its usage in the respective field. To some it involves Automation and Robotics while to others it involves crunching Big Data and analyzing them. Nonetheless, the one thing that AI has common across all its facets is that theoretically, AI Refers to Machines, that are programmed to mimic human behavior such as learning and problem-solving. Furthermore, Machine Learning, which is a subset of AI, refers to this concept of Computer Programs, automatically learning from and adapting to new data and solving the given task, without being explicitly programmed by humans for each task. In practice, there are certain generic ML algorithms that are programmed to analyze any given set of suitable data and take rational decisions that have the best chance of achieving a specific goal, thus making the system to be Artificially Intelligent. This allows the system to be Scalable, Robust, handle Big Data and in some cases decrease the execution time of operation. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is therefore the most sought after technological advancement in the 21st Century with every industry adopting the same. But, what would implementation of AI for UDA look like? “Any acoustic capacity building effort requires four processing stages: (a) Data Gathering, (b) Data Analysis, (c) Signal Processing and (d) Output, out of which the efficiency of second and third stage are heavily influenced by the quantity of data. This is where Machine Learning comes into picture.” Any acoustic capacity building effort requires four processing stages: (a) Data Gathering, (b) Data Analysis, (c) Signal Processing and (d) Output, out of which the efficiency of second and third stage are heavily influenced by the quantity of data. This is where Machine Learning comes into picture. Figure-1 Schematic showing the relationship between accuracy, execution time and computational cost in case of different models Mathematical Models used in Signal Processing algorithms are inherent to some implicit assumptions which decrease the accuracy unlike AI models which find patterns between data and output. Furthermore, the time complexity of mathematical models which basically involve matrix multiplication, linearly increases with increase in data points. AI models such as Neural Network which effectively perform Matrix Decomposition (Faster than Matrix Multiplication) require substantially less execution time. Lastly, any traditional mathematical models, hold true only for the environment in which they have been created. For e.g., the D. Ross model formed during Cold War falls short in prediction and is replaced by Wittikiend Model because there has been a substantial change in vessel dimensions over the years. Similarly, a few years down the line a new mathematical model will be required replacing the Wittikiend model and so on. AI models are robust in nature and with changes in data, it will automatically adapt to new situations. “AI models are robust in nature and with changes in data, it will automatically adapt to new situations.” Ocean Ambient Noise is a crucial input parameter for signal processing in almost every underwater system and its estimation is therefore an integral part of any acoustic capacity building effort and the larger UDA. Contribution of AI towards UDA can be understood well using the following examples:- Marine Spatial Planning is an application of UDA which aims at ocean ambient noise levels in the region, so as to provide information on areas which are hazardous to marine mammals. This is because, the frequency of communication of big marine mammals such as whales and dolphins is similar to the frequency in which shipping industry induces ambient noise and therefore the ambient noise creates hindrance to mammals, often resulting into their stranding and death. Dr Christine Erbe and her

Read More
indonasian Science and Technology

Indonesian Plane Crash 2021 – A Wake-up Call

  • February 17, 2022
  • 0 Comments

Indonesian Plane Crash 2021 – A Wake-up Call The recent accident highlights the limitations in our underwater search & recovery capabilities On 06 January 2021, an Indonesian airline aircraft met with an accident in the Java Sea with 62 people onboard. In the recent past, Indonesia has had a number of airline accidents in the Java Sea. In December 2014, as many as 162 people went down onboard an AirAsia jetliner, and in 2018, a Lion Air aircraft crashed with 189 passengers. We are aware of the MH370 from Malaysia, Indian Navy’s AN32 in the Andaman Sea, and many other airliners that could not be recovered. Recovery of the debris is extremely critical to investigate the cause of the crash, so that we can ascertain lessons for the future and make amendments. The track record of Underwater Search & Recovery (UWSAR) has been extremely poor across the globe and is further degraded in the tropical littoral waters. “The track record of Underwater Search & Recovery (UWSAR) has been extremely poor across the globe and is further degraded in the tropical littoral waters.” Fig.1 Indo-Pacific Strategic Space Globally, maritime activities are seeing an upward trend and more specifically in the tropical littoral waters of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) and the South China Sea (SCS), which have become strategically very relevant in the 21st century. More and more extra-regional powers and the nations within are maintaining their strategic presence in these waters with the deployment of military and research platforms with multiple submersibles. The Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOC) are seeing a massive jump in numbers and during the ongoing COVID_19 pandemic a surge in accidents was also observed. Given the Indo-Pacific Strategic Space defined across the tropical littoral waters of the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean (as shown in Fig. 1), it is inevitable that we will have more and more activities in these waters. The Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) vision of the Honourable Prime Minister of India puts us in a different league. The Indo part of the Indo-Pacific now has a different meaning and our own capacity & capability building has to address varied dimensions. UWSAR will be the most critical aspect in this. The conventional UWSAR significantly falls short of requirements in the tropical littoral waters. Many of us believe that we will be able to recover the underwater wreckage by deploying our search and recovery resources. UWSAR is highly challenging in tropical waters, with the very diverse underwater conditions in terms of hydrology, bathymetry, acoustic propagation and more, and needs far more preparation. “UWSAR is highly challenging in tropical waters, with the very diverse underwater conditions in terms of hydrology, bathymetry, acoustic propagation and more, and needs far more preparation.” “The frequency versus resolution and the range versus depth are critical factors in planning the UWSAR.” Tropical littoral waters ensure sub-optimal performance of the sonars deployed in the underwater domain for any acoustic survey mission. The degradation is of the order of over 70% based on the propagation conditions. The frequency versus resolution and the range versus depth are critical factors in planning the UWSAR. While higher frequency is critical for better resolution to be able to identify the debris, the higher frequencies suffer significant attenuations underwater during propagation and may not be able to detect the object at high range. Given the sub-optimal performance of the sonars in the tropical littoral waters, the specifications of range given by the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) just do not hold good and thus the planning and resource deployment for UWSAR in these waters requires a different approach. Multiple levels of SAR will be required to actually identify the wreckage – the initial search to identify the possible location with low frequency sonar (low resolution) and then the deployment of high frequency sonars to actually identify the debris. Ship borne and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) will have to be appropriately used to deploy the sonars at the location. Large scale data analysis, right from the prediction of the location, and validation of the site to the actual deployment of the acoustic survey needs a substantial amount of preparatory work. The socio-economic and political situation in the region does not allow any of the nations to deploy significant resources for indigenous Research & Development (R&D) and focus on Science & Technology (S&T) capacity and capability development. The constant budgetary competition among the socio-economic requirements to meet immediate needs versus long term S&T investment is a difficult political decision and often unviable. The fragmented geopolitics of the region further adds to the lack of coordination and consolidation among nations in the region to come together and work in a coherent and cogent manner. This allows extra-regional powers to meddle in domestic politics and further disrupt regional peace and prosperity. Non-state actors are being used as a regular instrument of state foreign policy, impacting regional cooperation and consolidation. Maritime governance is a serious casualty in the absence of effective policy backed by S&T and local site specific R&D. Given the trans-ocean nature of the maritime commons, only a regional framework can work. Maritime governance is a serious casualty in the absence of effective policy backed by S&T and local site specific R&D. Given the trans-ocean nature of the maritime commons, only a regional framework can work. “The pooling of resources and synergising of efforts across stakeholders will facilitate safe, secure, sustainable growth for all in the region and significantly enhance maritime governance.” The Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA) Framework proposed by the Maritime Research Centre (MRC), Pune can potentially provide solutions to the challenges and opportunities of UWSAR. The pooling of resources and synergising of efforts across stakeholders will facilitate safe, secure, sustainable growth for all in the region and significantly enhance maritime governance. The four stakeholders – maritime security, blue economy, environment & disaster management, and science & technology – need to work together both at the national and regional level. Regional cooperation and consolidation is inescapable not only

Read More